2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the researchers try to identify all the reasons that influence the male teenager involved in drug addiction. All the reasons are being supported by the other authors and pass findings that are conducted a research about the same issue. In literature review, the researchers discussed in depth about each reason such as family crisis, peers influence, society and teenager itself.

2.1 Definition

2.1.1 Teenager

In common usage around the world, ‘adolescent’, ‘teenager’, ‘teen’, ‘youth’, ‘young adult’, ‘lighty’, ‘youngster’, ‘young in’, ‘shorty’, ‘young person’ and ‘emerging adult’ may be considered synonyms, although the term teenager is an artifact of the English counting system, something which does not occur in all languages. In sociology, adolescence is seen as a cultural phenomenon for the working world and therefore its end points are not easily tied to physical milestones.

As a transitional stage of human development, adolescence is the period in which a child matures into an adult. This transition involves biological, social, and psychological changes, though the biological or physiological ones are the easiest to measure objectively. A person between early childhood and the teenage years is sometimes referred to as a teen. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country as well as by function, as even within a single country there will be different ages at which an individual is considered mature enough to be entrusted with particular tasks, such as driving a vehicle, serving in the armed forces, voting, or marrying.

Based on Webster (1995), he defines adolescence as ‘the state or process of growing up, the period of life from puberty to maturity terminating legally at the age of majority.’ It categorizes the time period beginning at youth and ending in adulthood, typically designated somewhere between the ages of twelve and twenty. Of course the high end number continues to climb and entire book suggest that the end of adolescence is closer to 25 years old.

According to Agensi Dadah Kebangsaan (AADK) (1997), addition profile in Malaysia indicates that parts of drug addict are from 15 until 25 years old. Most of them are the teenagers that still schooling either in the government or private schools or on the higher learning institutions (IPTA or IPTS). Meanwhile, according to Sebald in Hasnah (1995), the term teenager can be interchangeably used with adolescence. Both terms give similar meanings. They refer to a process of growing up or a process of developing human. The development process starts with physiological changes and ends up with psychosocial changes.

According to Ali Pitchay Ibrahim in Hasnah (1995), teenager can be defined as a young man which age ranged between 11 to 26 years old. He is normally physically active and emotionally unstable. Generally, he is easily influenced but fast leaner. Furthermore, based on Aderson in Hasnah (1995), teenager is a period when human inherently develop physical appearance such as weight and height. Therefore, the teen years begin either at the age 13 or 14. This physical changing process is followed by other internal and external factors until the age of 20.

According to World Health Organizations (WHO), a teenager is aged between 12 to 24 years old. It is in view of poor countries especially in Africa and parts of Asia. The efforts in improving standards of living and level of education are still minimal. Thus, the mental development and maturity process in the Third World Countries are slow in comparison to develop countries. Teenagers can be defined as young person between age 13 to 19 years old (MacMillan, 2002). According to Granvile Stanley Hall stated by Isa Samad (2005), the age of teenagers are classified from 12 to 23 years old.

The Vice President of PEMADAM, Lee Lam Thye stated about 156,824 drug addicts have been identified in Malaysia, since 1970 until 1991. Almost 19,085 drug addict identified in 1991 including 7,825 or 41 percent recently drug addicts. From a total number of 156,824 drug addict, 76.4 percent are workers, 28.4 percent are unemployment and 2.6 percent are students. In addition, the research shows that about 55 female student in secondary schools used drug every year. About 2,033 students from 647 schools involved in drug addiction since 1983 until 1991. From this figure, 1794 students are found still attempt to use drugs. The teenager and student is one of the groups that indicate higher rates which became the victims of the drug in Malaysia.

According to Chief Minister of Negeri Sembilan, Tan Sri Isa Abdul Samad (Berita Harian, 15 September 1992),, the involvement of Malay teenagers in drug addiction is more serious compared to the teenagers from other races and religions.

2.1.2 Drug

The term drugs can be defined as illegal substance that affects physically or mentally when they take it (MacMillan, 2002). According to Abdul Ghafar Taib (1998), drug is any chemicals substance either natural or forgery when the person use it by smelling, eating, injecting and also sucking that can change their body systems, emotions and behaviors. According to TPP Mohd Reduan Aslie (1990), drug is any chemicals substances that have been used by human and animal body to investigate, secure and prevent or to improve health conditions. When the person misuse, it can effect addiction and health conditions as well as someone behavior.

Drugs are chemicals or substances that change the way our bodies work. When people put drug into their body (often by swallowing, inhaling, or injecting them), drugs find their way into their bloodstream and are transported to parts of the body such as brain. In the brain, drugs may intensify or dull senses, alter the sense of alertness, and sometimes decrease physical pain. A drug may be helpful or harmful. The effects of drugs can vary depending upon the kind of drug taken, how much is taken, how often it is used, how quickly it gets to the brain, and what other drugs, food, or substances are taken at the same time. Effects can also vary based on the differences in body size, shape, and chemistry.

The famous drug within teenagers is Ecstasy (MDMA). This is a designer drug created by underground chemists. It comes in powder, tablet, or capsule form. Ecstasy is a popular club drug among teens because it is widely available at raves, dance clubs, and concerts. Second is cocaine and crack .Cocaine is a white crystalline powder made from the dried leaves of the coca plant. Crack, named for its crackle when heated is made from cocaine. It looks like white or tan pellets. Third is a cough and cold medicine (DXM). Several over the counter cough and cold medicines contain the ingredient dextromethorphan (also called DXM). If taken in large quantities, these over the counter medicines can cause hallucinations, loss of motor control and or disassociate sensations.

However, there are certain people wrong using the drug and become a drug addiction. According to World Health Organization (WHO) (1957), Expert Committee on Addiction Producing Drugs defined addiction and habituation as components of drug abuse. Drug addiction is a state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the repeated consumption of a drug (natural or synthetic). Its characteristics include an overpowering desire or need (compulsion) to continue taking the drug and to obtain it by any means, a tendency to increase the dose, a psychic (psychological) and generally a physical dependence on the effects of the drug and detrimental effects on the individual and on society.

Drug habituation is a condition resulting from the repeated consumption of a drug. Its characteristics include a desire (but not a compulsion) to continue taking the drug for the sense of improved well-being which it engenders, little or no tendency to increase the dose, some degree of psychic dependence on the effect of the drug, but absence of physical dependence and hence of an abstinence syndrome (withdrawal), and detrimental effects, if any, primarily on the individual.

2.1.3 Reasons of involvement in drug addiction

The Agensi Dadah Kebangsaan (1997) stated that among the main factors that influence the involvement of teenagers in drug addiction are peer influence, family crisis, medicine alternatives, and society, reduce stress, enjoyment, indirectly behavior and sexual enjoyment. In this research, the researchers have identified four main reasons that might influence male teenagers involved in drug addiction which are family crisis, peers influence, society and myself.

Simple and straight answer to question the child or teenager starts using drugs does not exist. Many times, it is a combination of several factors including society, family and peers. They may turn to drugs to escape stress or loneliness or to overcome shyness in social situations. They may want to be seen as grown up or as a risk taker or they may simply be curious. Adolescence is often a time of low self-esteem, which can develop as a result of not being able to grow and change as quickly as is desired. A young person with low self esteem may feel they are not as smart, attractive, talented or popular as their peers. They may also feel pressured by parents, teachers or others to achieve goals that seem unattainable. To help deal with the pressure, a young person with low self-esteem may be more likely to put aside his or her good judgments and turn to drugs or alcohol to escape.

2.1.3.1 Family crisis

The reason of male teenagers involved in drug addiction also can be related with family problem such as divorced, polygamy and child abuse. This is because they are stress and the way of them faced toward their problem in their life. In other hand, stress and tension arise within family actually contribute by the family problem that cannot be resolved systematically and it is continuously. The effect of this problem not only ends at anytime but it is bring them to the other life problems including drugs addiction (Mohamed Izham ,Razak Lajis and Mohd Isa, 2002).

According to the research presented at Economic and Social Council of United Nations, it is not correct to routinely hold parents responsible for their children's drug related problems, but adds that drug abuse may be influenced by such factors as harsh discipline or drug use by parents. Studies have shown that illicit drug abuse correlates more strongly with disintegration of the family than with poverty. A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that teenagers who reported feeling close to their families were the least likely to engage in any of the risky behaviors studied, which included drinking and smoking marijuana or cigarettes.

According to Mark J. Kittleson, William Kane, Richell Rennegarbe and others (2005), the reason of male teenagers involved in drug addiction comes from parent’s attitudes than the parent’s experience towards drugs. The children or teenagers are more probable to follow their parent’s attitudes toward drugs. The teens whose parents abuse drugs or alcohol are considerably more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol themselves.

Furthermore, the involvement of male teenagers in drug addiction also can be looked on the different parental or family personalities which clash with their child's personalities. Through this, it may cause a misfit of a child in their family structured and they feel lonely as well as alienated in the family. At the end, they will seek their peers in order to get the support from them. This is show that, it may be a first step toward a phase of drugs use. The author also said that, family alienation also use for teenagers by seeking help with drug in order to avoid themselves feeling alone which will result to their stress. Family problem may caused by certain condition in the family system in order it can encourage or influence teenagers with drugs problems (Arthur W. Blume, 2005).

In other hand, according to Arthur W. Blume, the children may engage with the risk-taking behavior because they feel neglected and less attention from their parents. According to Zakaria Stapa (1990), from the research that have been done by many psychologists, there are many factors which influence the involvement in drug addiction consist of peer influence, family crisis, desire of fun, anxiety, frustrated and so forth. In

addition, it will affect the behavior addiction to involve in criminal because of having financial problem in getting drugs. The drugs addict is influence to do the crime when they are under pressure and control.

According to Siegel and Welsh (2005), drug users have a poor family life. The majority of drug users have had unhappy childhood, which included harsh punishment and parental neglect. It is also common to find substances abusers in large families and with parents who are divorced, separated or absent. Social psychologists suggest that drug abuse patterns may also result from observation of parental drug use. In the research shows that gang members raised in families with a history of drug use were more likely than other gang members to use cocaine and to use it more seriously. Other family factors associated with teen drug abuse include parental conflict over child rearing practices, failure to set rules and unrealistic demands followed by harsh punishments. Low parental attachment, rejection and excessive family conflict have all been linked to adolescent substance abuse.

2.1.3.2 Peer pressure

According to Siegel and Welsh (2005), drug abuse is highly correlated with the behavior of best friends, especially when parental supervision is weak. Perhaps they join with peers to learn the techniques of drug use, their relationships with other drug dependent youths give them social support for their habit.

Drug use is correlated with attitudes and beliefs about drugs, both in terms of perceived health risks and the level of peer disapproval. As children reach adolescence, peer influences on personal behavior can take on increasing importance in determining the use of drugs, alcohol, and cigarettes. If teenagers think that his peers will disapprove and denounce him, it’s high probability that he won’t begin using any of these substances.

2.1.3.3 Society

According to Siegel and Welsh (2005), drug use by young minority group members has been tied to factors such as poverty, social disorganization, racial prejudice and stress living in a harsh environment. The association between drug use, race and poverty link to the high level of mistrust and defiance found in lower socioeconomic areas.

Society is one of the reason that contribute teenagers to the drug addiction also can be related and linked with the environment of the society and teenagers itself. According to Arthur W. Blume (2005), the environmental risk factors also may influence the male teenagers comes to the drugs problem. From his illustration, he mentioned the poverty has highest rates linked of drug addiction and poor neighborhoods. In addition, stress is one of the risk factor of the male teenagers involved in drug addiction. This is because teenager started taking drugs in order to reduce their stress or to relax.

Psychological stressor is the one of the element which may contribute to the drug addiction including to other stressor such as family, money, job stress, unemployment, daily hassles or major life changes or crisis. Furthermore, the author stated that many drug addicts felt they are not a part of their families and they did not in shape with the society. In general, they also described themselves as black sheep. This is means that either their family or the society gives bad perception to them. As the result they cannot matches either in families or in society and they may feel that they were neglected. Many of drugs addicts from ethnic minority group also feel that they do not match with the majority culture. They also used drugs to seek relief or to stay away from the environmental stressor that are related to prejudice and cultural shock.

Moreover, according to Mohamed Izham, Razak Lajis and Mohd Isa (2002), the process of modernization and development of cultures other than give the benefits to the society it also can bring effect that related with the drugs abuse. Modernization process also can influence the society to become more individualistic and from this circumstances can caused them feel lonely and lose of guidance when they were faced with stress situation especially for male teenagers itself. Nowadays, modern society always weak in their knowledge about the religion. Less in this spiritual also can influence and make them easily find their own way such as by taking drugs when they have to face with the stress.

2.1.3.4 Teenager itself

According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, young people themselves indicate the reasons teenagers involved in drug addiction such as to feel grown up, fit in and belong, relax and feel good, take risks and rebel and satisfy curiosity One of the reasons the drugs become popular among teenagers might be the fact that they do not have fear of death, it seems very remote to them. The teenager can even convince themselves that then this problem become urgent for them, the medicine will be able to treat them. On the other hand, nobody who begins using drugs thinks that he will become addicted to them.